United States Congress

United States
Congress
United States; Congress
123rd United States Congress
Type
Type	Bicameral
Houses	Senate; House of Representatives
History
Founded	4 March 1489 (originally); 1 January 1730 (reconstituted) ;
Current session
Next session starts	3 January 1733
Leadership
President of; the Senate	Rand Paul (L); Since 1 July 1735
President; pro Tempore	Ted Cruz (F); Since 20 March 1735
Speaker of; the House	Andy Biggs (L); Since 20 March 1735
Speaker; pro Tempore	Kimble Hookstraten (F); Since 3 January 1735
Structure
Membership	547 Members of Congress; 360 Senators; 471 Representatives; ;
Senate;
	- Republican Coalition (51)
Liberals	26
Federalists	25
	- Independents (37)
Independents	37
	- Democrat Coalition (32)
Labor	32
Term	6 years
Term limits	Varies by State
Salary	Paid by States; varies
House of Representatives;
	- Republican Coalition (353)
Liberals	189
Federalists	164
	- Independents (370)
Independents	370
	- Democrat Coalition (348)
Labor	332
Progressives	316
Term	2 years
Term limits	Varies by State
Salary	$45,000 per annum
Elections
Senate voting system	Gubernatorial appointment with; State Senate advice and consent
House voting system	First past the post
Senate last election	Class 1: 4 Mar 1735; Class 2: 4 Mar 1735; Class 3: 4 Mar 1735;
Senate next election	Class 1: 4 Nov 1736; Class 2: 2 Nov 1738; Class 3: 6 Nov 1740;
House last election	4 March 1735
House next election	4 November 1736
Meeting place
	File:US-FCT image-US Capitol-202004120623.jpg
	United States Capitol; 1800 WEST CAPITOL STREET; FŒDERAL CAPITAL TERRITORY
Website
	link://congress.usna.gov

	United States
	Congress

The United States Congress^[a], officially the Congress of the United States^[a] and the Federal Legislature of the United States^[b], is the federal legislature of the Union of thirty North Aegean States known as the United States of North Aegea.

Traditionally known as “[the] United States in Congress assembled”^[c], the Congress is bicameral, consisting of a State-appointed upper house styled Senate, and a directly- and popularly-elected lower house named House of Representatives. As the U.S. Constitution forbids either of the two Houses of Congress from meeting in separate Places without the Consent of the other,^{[α 1]} both of them currently meet in the United States Capitol in the Fœderal Capital Territory: the Senate in the North Wing, and the House in the South Wing.

In the Congress, Senators are not elected, but are members of their State’s Government, essentially they are Ambassadors of the States who may commit the Government of their State and cast its Vote; while, on the other hand, Representatives are elected in each State by the qualified and registered Electors thereof, and represent the People of their District: For this reason, the Senate is also known as the “House of the States”, whereas the House of Representatives is often called the “House of the People”.

The United States Congress is a legislature of limited Power. It may only legislate on certain Subjects, all of which are enumerated in clear and concise language in the Federal Constitution.

Overview[edit | edit source]

File:Johnson Impeachment Committee.jpg

In 1868, this committee of representatives prosecuted president Andrew Johnson in his impeachment trial, but the Senate did not convict him.

Article II-B of the United States Constitution (1730) states, “All legislative Powers herein actually delegated to the United States shall be vested in a general Legislature of the Union in the name and form of a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives” (U.S. Const., art. II-B, §1). The Senate and House are equal partners in the legislative process: Legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. However, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties, approves the Governor-General’s appointments, and initiates appropriation bills; while the House initiates revenue-raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases (akin to a grand jury returning an indictment), while the Senate decides impeachment cases (akin to a trial). A two-thirds vote of the whole Senate is required before an impeached person can be forcibly removed from office.

Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government’s most representative body ... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day.
—Smith, Roberts, and Wielen

Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the North Aegean South and West have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the Census and includes more minorities and women. While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change, the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties, civic associations, interest groups, and the mass media.

The Congress serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by Representatives and a State government’s representation to the federal government by Senators.

The historical records of the Senate and House of Representatives are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the Federal Archives and Records Administration.

Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the Fœderal Capital Territory, the current Seat of the United States Federal Government, but has devolved much of this power to an elected Governor, Administrator, and Legislative Council of the Fœderal Capital Territory.

Etymology[edit | edit source]

The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the Federal Legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 115th Congress, began on 3 January 1731, and will end on 3 January 1733. The Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as Senators, while members of the House of Representatives are referred to as Representatives.

The term was chosen for the Federal Legislature of the United States to emphasize the status of each member State composing the United States, represented in the Federal Legislature, as a sovereign self-governing political community (State). In this sense, the term, “United States” in the name “Congress of the United States” refers not to the United States as a single entity or a confederation, but as the federal Union of the thirty member States, and in this way, “[the] United States”, is to be understood to mean “[the] thirty States united”: Furthermore, the meaning behind the name, “Congress of the United States”, is that the body, the Congress, is a meeting or assembly of the [thirty] States. The same concept applies to the term, “United States in Congress assembled”: substitute “thirty” for “United” and the true meaning becomes clear —e.g., “thirty States assembled in Congress”.

Other names for the Federal Legislature include, “[The] United States in Congress assembled”^[c]; “Congress of the Confederation”^[d], “Congress of the Confederacy”^[d], and “Confederation Congress”^[d]; as well as, “Congress of the Union”^[e] and “Union Congress”.^[e]

History[edit | edit source]

Main article: History of the United States Congress

XXXX

Congress in the United States federal government[edit | edit source]

XXXX

State influence in Congress[edit | edit source]

The State Chief Executives and Legislatures regularly encourage Members of Congress how to vote on specific issues. Specifically, they “instruct” the Senators^[1], and “request” of the Representatives^[2]: Senators are required to cast their Vote according to instructions given to them by their State’s chief Executive or Legislature (or when the instructions given by the chief Executive differs from those given by the Legislature, they are bound to follow the latter and disregard the former), while Representatives are not bound to abide by the request of their State’s chief Executive or Legislature; and on rare occasions, a Senator will choose to resign rather than follow instructions.

Powers of Congress[edit | edit source]

XXXX

Overview of congressional power[edit | edit source]

The United States Congress is a legislature of limited Power. It may only legislate on certain Subjects, all of which are enumerated in explicit Clarity in the Federal Constitution, specifically within article II-B, section 8 of that document. The United States Congress is entirely without Power to legislate on any Matter not coming within the actual Enumeration of Classes of Subjects in article II-B, section 8, of the Federal Constitution Treaty; Instead:—

All Powers not enumerated in article II-B, section 8;
All Powers enumerated in article III, section 1;
All other Powers not expressly delegated to the United States by the Federal Constitution Treaty nor prohibited by it to the States;—And
All Powers hitherto unknown to the Federal Constitution—

—are reserved exclusively to the States respectively.

Enumerated Powers of the Union: Powers delegated to Congress[edit | edit source]

Main article: United States Constitution, article II-B, section 8

Matters of Federal competence

Powers expressly delegated to the United States^{[α 2]}

The Congress shall have Power:^{[α 3]}
1. To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, Necessary to pay the Debts, and provide for the common Defense and general Weal of the United States: But all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the several States;
2. To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin; and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;
3. To prescribe the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;
4. To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of the Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States;
5. To establish post Offices and post Roads;
6. To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;
7. To prescribe the Punishment of Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offenses against the Law of Nations;
8. To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;
9. To provide and maintain a Navy; and an Air Force;
10. To provide and maintain nuclear and other Forces;
11. To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land; air and space; naval and maritime; and nuclear and other Forces;
12. To establish throughout the several States uniform Rules for the organizing, arming, and disciplining, of the Militaries and Militia of the respective States; but no such Rules pertaining to the Military of any State shall have any effect in any State until they shall have been adopted and enacted as Law by the Legislature thereof;—And
13. To organize the Government of the United States.
The Congress, acting as an Agent of the several States, shall also have Power: ^{[α 4]}
1. To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; and to provide for calling forth the Militia: to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections, and repel Invasions;
2. To constitute Tribunals inferior to the Federal Court of Appeal;
3. To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;
4. To establish throughout the several States an uniform Rule prescribing the requirements for the Naturalization of foreign Nationals by the respective States; and to establish in like Manner uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies: But until such Time as the Congress shall establish such uniform Rule of Naturalization and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies, the States respectively shall continue to exercise Power over these Matters in a plenary Manner; And no Law of Congress shall discharge any Debt contracted by the United States before the passage of the same;
5. To facilitate Commerce with foreign Nations and among the several States;—And
6. To make all Laws which shall be absolutely Necessary and Proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers enumerated in subsections (A) and (B) of this section, and all other Powers that are by clear and express words of this Constitution delegated to the United States: Provided always, that except where this Constitution by clear and express words shall permit otherwise, no Law enacted under this part shall in any way work an abridgment, pre-emption or other such infringement upon the Powers or other Competence of the States comprised in the Enumeration in article III, section one, of this Constitution of the Classes of Subjects that are by this Constitution reserved exclusively to the States respectively, or other Powers or Competence reserved to the same.
For further Clarity, it shall be understood that any Matter directly coming within any of the Classes of Subjects actually Enumerated in this section shall not be construed as to come within the Class of Matters of a Local or Private nature comprised in the Enumeration of the Classes of Subjects that are by this Constitution reserved exclusively to the several States.

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Aenean commodo ligula eget dolor. Aenean massa. Cum sociis natoque penatibus et magnis dis parturient montes, nascetur ridiculus mus. Donec quam felis, ultricies nec, pellentesque eu, pretium quis, sem. Nulla consequat massa quis enim. Donec pede justo, fringilla vel, aliquet nec, vulputate eget, arcu. In enim justo, rhoncus ut, imperdiet a, venenatis vitae, justo. Nullam dictum felis eu pede mollis pretium. Integer tincidunt. Cras dapibus. Vivamus elementum semper nisi. Aenean vulputate eleifend tellus. Aenean leo ligula, porttitor eu, consequat vitae, eleifend ac, enim. Aliquam lorem ante, dapibus in, viverra quis, feugiat a, tellus. Phasellus viverra nulla ut metus varius laoreet. Quisque rutrum. Aenean imperdiet. Etiam ultricies nisi vel augue. Curabitur ullamcorper ultricies nisi. Nam eget dui.

Etiam rhoncus. Maecenas tempus, tellus eget condimentum rhoncus, sem quam semper libero, sit amet adipiscing sem neque sed ipsum. Nam quam nunc, blandit vel, luctus pulvinar, hendrerit id, lorem. Maecenas nec odio et ante tincidunt tempus. Donec vitae sapien ut libero venenatis faucibus. Nullam quis ante. Etiam sit amet orci eget eros faucibus tincidunt. Duis leo. Sed fringilla mauris sit amet nibh. Donec sodales sagittis magna. Sed consequat, leo eget bibendum sodales, augue velit cursus nunc, quis gravida magna mi a libero. Fusce vulputate eleifend sapien. Vestibulum purus quam, scelerisque ut, mollis sed, nonummy id, metus. Nullam accumsan lorem in dui. Cras ultricies mi eu turpis hendrerit fringilla. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; In ac dui quis mi consectetuer lacinia.

Nam pretium turpis et arcu. Duis arcu tortor, suscipit eget, imperdiet nec, imperdiet iaculis, ipsum. Sed aliquam ultrices mauris. Integer ante arcu, accumsan a, consectetuer eget, posuere ut, mauris. Praesent adipiscing. Phasellus ullamcorper ipsum rutrum nunc. Nunc nonummy metus. Vestibulum volutpat pretium libero. Cras id dui. Aenean ut eros et nisl sagittis vestibulum. Nullam nulla eros, ultricies sit amet, nonummy id, imperdiet feugiat, pede. Sed lectus. Donec mollis hendrerit risus. Phasellus nec sem in justo pellentesque facilisis. Etiam imperdiet imperdiet orci. Nunc nec neque. Phasellus leo dolor, tempus non, auctor et, hendrerit quis, nisi.

Curabitur ligula sapien, tincidunt non, euismod vitae, posuere imperdiet, leo. Maecenas malesuada. Praesent congue erat at massa. Sed cursus turpis vitae tortor. Donec posuere vulputate arcu. Phasellus accumsan cursus velit. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Sed aliquam, nisi quis porttitor congue, elit erat euismod orci, ac placerat dolor lectus quis orci. Phasellus consectetuer vestibulum elit. Aenean tellus metus, bibendum sed, posuere ac, mattis non, nunc. Vestibulum fringilla pede sit amet augue. In turpis. Pellentesque posuere. Praesent turpis.

Aenean posuere, tortor sed cursus feugiat, nunc augue blandit nunc, eu sollicitudin urna dolor sagittis lacus. Donec elit libero, sodales nec, volutpat a, suscipit non, turpis. Nullam sagittis. Suspendisse pulvinar, augue ac venenatis condimentum, sem libero volutpat nibh, nec pellentesque velit pede quis nunc. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Fusce id purus. Ut varius tincidunt libero. Phasellus dolor. Maecenas vestibulum mollis diam. Pellentesque ut neque. Pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas.

In dui magna, posuere eget, vestibulum et, tempor auctor, justo. In ac felis quis tortor malesuada pretium. Pellentesque auctor neque nec urna. Proin sapien ipsum, porta a, auctor quis, euismod ut, mi. Aenean viverra rhoncus pede. Pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas. Ut non enim eleifend felis pretium feugiat. Vivamus quis mi. Phasellus a est. Phasellus magna.

In hac habitasse platea dictumst. Curabitur at lacus ac velit ornare lobortis. Curabitur a felis in nunc fringilla tristique. Morbi mattis ullamcorper velit. Phasellus gravida semper nisi. Nullam vel sem. Pellentesque libero tortor, tincidunt et, tincidunt eget, semper nec, quam. Sed hendrerit. Morbi ac felis. Nunc egestas, augue at pellentesque laoreet, felis eros vehicula leo, at malesuada velit leo quis pede. Donec interdum, metus et hendrerit aliquet, dolor diam sagittis ligula, eget egestas libero turpis vel mi. Nunc nulla. Fusce risus nisl, viverra et, tempor et, pretium in, sapien. Donec venenatis vulputate lorem.

Morbi nec metus. Phasellus blandit leo ut odio. Maecenas ullamcorper, dui et placerat feugiat, eros pede varius nisi, condimentum viverra felis nunc et lorem. Sed magna purus, fermentum eu, tincidunt eu, varius ut, felis. In auctor lobortis lacus. Quisque libero metus, condimentum nec, tempor a, commodo mollis, magna. Vestibulum ullamcorper mauris at ligula. Fusce fermentum. Nullam cursus lacinia erat. Praesent blandit laoreet nibh.

Fusce convallis metus id felis luctus adipiscing. Pellentesque egestas, neque sit amet convallis pulvinar, justo nulla eleifend augue, ac auctor orci leo non est. Quisque id mi. Ut tincidunt tincidunt erat. Etiam feugiat lorem non metus. Vestibulum dapibus nunc ac augue. Curabitur vestibulum aliquam leo. Praesent egestas neque eu enim. In hac habitasse platea dictumst. Fusce a quam. Etiam ut purus mattis mauris sodales aliquam. Curabitur nisi. Quisque malesuada placerat nisl. Nam ipsum risus, rutrum vitae, vestibulum eu, molestie vel, lacus.

Sed augue ipsum, egestas nec, vestibulum et, malesuada adipiscing, dui. Vestibulum facilisis, purus nec pulvinar iaculis, ligula mi congue nunc, vitae euismod ligula urna in dolor. Mauris sollicitudin fermentum libero. Praesent nonummy mi in odio. Nunc interdum lacus sit amet orci. Vestibulum rutrum, mi nec elementum vehicula, eros quam gravida nisl, id fringilla neque ante vel mi. Morbi mollis tellus ac sapien. Phasellus volutpat, metus eget egestas mollis, lacus lacus blandit dui, id egestas quam mauris ut lacus. Fusce vel dui. Sed in libero ut nibh placerat accumsan. Proin faucibus arcu quis ante. In consectetuer turpis ut velit. Nulla sit amet est. Praesent metus tellus, elementum eu, semper a, adipiscing nec, purus. Cras risus ipsum, faucibus ut, ullamcorper id, varius ac, leo. Suspendisse feugiat. Suspendisse enim turpis, dictum sed, iaculis a, condimentum nec, nisi. Praesent nec nisl a purus blandit viverra. Praesent ac massa at ligula laoreet iaculis. Nulla neque dolor, sagittis eget, iaculis quis, molestie non, velit.

Mauris turpis nunc, blandit et, volutpat molestie, porta ut, ligula. Fusce pharetra convallis urna. Quisque ut nisi. Donec mi odio, faucibus at, scelerisque quis, convallis in, nisi. Suspendisse non nisl sit amet velit hendrerit rutrum. Ut leo. Ut a nisl id ante tempus hendrerit. Proin pretium, leo ac pellentesque mollis, felis nunc ultrices eros, sed gravida augue augue mollis justo. Suspendisse eu ligula. Nulla facilisi. Donec id justo. Praesent porttitor, nulla vitae posuere iaculis, arcu nisl dignissim dolor, a pretium mi sem ut ipsum. Curabitur suscipit suscipit tellus.

Praesent vestibulum dapibus nibh. Etiam iaculis nunc ac metus. Ut id nisl quis enim dignissim sagittis. Etiam sollicitudin, ipsum eu pulvinar rutrum, tellus ipsum laoreet sapien, quis venenatis ante odio sit amet eros. Proin magna. Duis vel nibh at velit scelerisque suscipit. Curabitur turpis. Vestibulum suscipit nulla quis orci. Fusce ac felis sit amet ligula pharetra condimentum. Maecenas egestas arcu quis ligula mattis placerat. Duis lobortis massa imperdiet quam. Suspendisse potenti.

Pellentesque commodo eros a enim. Vestibulum turpis sem, aliquet eget, lobortis pellentesque, rutrum eu, nisl. Sed libero. Aliquam erat volutpat. Etiam vitae tortor. Morbi vestibulum volutpat enim. Aliquam eu nunc. Nunc sed turpis. Sed mollis, eros et ultrices tempus, mauris ipsum aliquam libero, non adipiscing dolor urna a orci. Nulla porta dolor. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos hymenaeos.

Pellentesque dapibus hendrerit tortor. Praesent egestas tristique nibh. Sed a libero. Cras varius. Donec vitae orci sed dolor rutrum auctor. Fusce egestas elit eget lorem. Suspendisse nisl elit, rhoncus eget, elementum ac, condimentum eget, diam. Nam at tortor in tellus interdum sagittis. Aliquam lobortis. Donec orci lectus, aliquam ut, faucibus non, euismod id, nulla. Curabitur blandit mollis lacus. Nam adipiscing. Vestibulum eu odio.

Vivamus laoreet. Nullam tincidunt adipiscing enim. Phasellus tempus. Proin viverra, ligula sit amet ultrices semper, ligula arcu tristique sapien, a accumsan nisi mauris ac eros. Fusce neque. Suspendisse faucibus, nunc et pellentesque egestas, lacus ante convallis tellus, vitae iaculis lacus elit id tortor. Vivamus aliquet elit ac nisl. Fusce fermentum odio nec arcu. Vivamus euismod mauris. In ut quam vitae odio lacinia tincidunt. Praesent ut ligula non mi varius sagittis. Cras sagittis. Praesent ac sem eget est egestas volutpat. Vivamus consectetuer hendrerit lacus. Cras non dolor. Vivamus in erat ut urna cursus vestibulum. Fusce commodo aliquam arcu. Nam commodo suscipit quam. Quisque id odio. Praesent venenatis metus at tortor pulvinar varius.

Reserved Powers of the States: Powers prohibited to Congress[edit | edit source]

Main article: United States Constitution, article III, section 1

Matters of State competence

Powers exclusively reserved by and to the States^{[α 5]}

All Powers not actually delegated to the United States by this Constitution, nor expressly prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, to be exclusively by them exercised: Each State forever retains its Sovereignty, Freedom, and Independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction, and Right, which is not by this Constitution actually delegated to the United States;—And for greater Certainty, it is declared and shall be understood that the Powers of each State shall, subject to the Constitution of the State (except where this Constitution by clear and express words shall require otherwise), extend throughout the territory thereof to all Matters in relation to the Peace, Order, and good Government of the State, and the public Health, Welfare, Safety, Morals, Prosperity, Comfort, and Convenience of all inhabitants thereof; and, in like Manner, shall in each State also extend, to the complete and utter exclusion of the United States, to all Matters coming within the Classes of Subjects herein next enumerated; that is to say:
1. Raising Revenue, Necessary to pay the Debts, and provide for the Peace, Order, and Good Government of the State and for the public Health, Welfare, Safety, Morals, Prosperity, Comfort, and Convenience of the inhabitants thereof, and for Matters on which competence is by this Constitution reserved to the States respectively (or not otherwise expressly prohibited by this Constitution or the Constitution of the State concerned), and for Matters on which competence is devolved upon them by the United States; and for greater Certainty it is declared and shall be understood that in each State, pursuant to the Constitution and Laws thereof, the State Legislature shall have Power to raise Revenue by any Means and from any Source as they shall think Necessary and Proper, and they shall have Power to prescribe the proper Manner, Means, and Sources in which Revenue may be raised by the various political subdivisions of the State;
2. Borrowing of Money on the sole credit of the State, pursuant to the Constitution and Laws thereof;
3. Defining and punishing corruption and abuse of Power of any kind whatever occurring in the State;
4. Electors, and the Qualifications Necessary to be an Elector; political Parties; conduct of Elections, and Elections generally; and safeguarding the Purity of all Elections and all other Plebiscites conducted, or which may be conducted, at any place within the boundaries of the State;
5. Municipal Institutions in the State; Counties, Cities, and Towns; other Institutions of municipal and local Government in the State; and political Subdivisions of the State generally;
6. Courts established under the Constitution and Laws of the State, and Court procedure for the same; including their Rules of Procedure, both Criminal and Civil; and Rules of Evidence;
7. Property, private and public; property Law; and Eminent Domain;
8. Law of Torts and Malfeasance, and of Malpractice;
9. Contract law;
10. Civil law;
11. Criminal Law; defining crimes generally, and punishing the same; punishing offenses against the Constitution and Laws of the United States, and in like Manner offenses against the Treaties to which the State is a Party; and Administration of Justice generally;
12. Regulatory Law; and also the enactment and enforcement of Regulations and Orders being Necessary and Proper for the implementation of the Laws of the United States;
13. Punishing Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and punishing Offenses against the Law of Nations, according to the Laws of the United States enacted on such Subjects;
14. Prisons, Penitentiaries, and Reform Institutions;
15. Internal Police; National Security; and border Security of the State;
16. Militia, Military, and National Defense of the State; including raising and supporting an Army of the State, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; and providing and maintaining maritime and air Forces of the same;
17. Emergency Management and civil Protection;
18. Education;
19. Civil rights;
20. Aboriginal peoples and lands;
21. Supernatural peoples;
22. Natural Resources of any kind whatever;
23. Conservation, Fish and Wildlife, Forestry, Wetlands, and Environment;
24. Agriculture, Ranching, Livestock, and Fisheries; Food and Food Safety;
25. Animal, Plant, Fungal, and other Life;
26. Parks and Recreation;
27. Water, water Use; Waterways, and Sea Coast within the territorial Waters of the State; and riparian Law;
28. Pollution; Particulates; and other harmful Emissions and Substances;
29. State Lands; Public Lands; and Land use;
30. Regulation of Trade and Commerce within the State; Manufacturing; and the internal Market of the State;
31. Laws relating consumer and occupational Health, Safety, and Welfare;
32. Corporations, Securities, and Stocks; Banking, Industry, and Labor; Occupations; and the Regulation and Licensing of the same;
33. Fire, Building, and Life Safety;
34. Health and Healthcare; Hospitals, marine Hospitals, and Asylums; and Charities and benevolent Institutions; and the Regulation and Licensing of the same;
35. Medicine, Pharmacy, Narcotics, and Drugs; and the Regulation and Licensing of the same;
36. Quarantine;
37. Insurance of any kind whatever;
38. Estate and inheritance;
39. Mortuaries and Cemeteries;
40. Welfare, hardship Assistance, and Subsidies; and Pensions and supplementary Benefits of any kind whatever;
41. Family, Marriage and Divorce; and Children;
42. Firearms and Ammunition; Knives, Swords, and other Blades; kinetic Weapons; and Weapons generally;
43. Immigration to and from the State, including prescribing the entry and other qualifications Necessary therefor: But in no Case whatsoever shall any Rule of Immigration enacted by a State be construed as to deny or disparage the right of the Citizens of each State to the freedom of movement between the several States and also within each of them;
44. Naturalization of Aliens, pursuant to article II-B, section 8, subsection B, clause 3, of this Constitution;
45. Asylum and Refugees;
46. Energy, electricity Generation and Transmission; ionizing Radiation, nuclear Energy, and radioactive Materials;
47. Telecommunication, Television, Telegraph, Radio, and Interlink;
48. Critical Infrastructure, and Infrastructure generally, including Communications, Transportation, Pipelines, and all such Works that move Goods, Services, Information, and People;
49. Public Works; internal Improvements and Subsidies;
50. Transportation and Railroads; air Traffic and State Airspace;
51. Harbors, Beacons, Buoys, and Lighthouses; Navigation and Shipping; and Ferries within the State, between that State and another, and between that State and any Foreign State;
52. Public Service Corporations and Public Utilities generally; and all Corporations engaged in furnishing Gas, Oil, or Electricity for Light, Fuel, or Power; or in furnishing Water for Irrigation, fire Protection, or other public Purposes; or in furnishing, for profit or not, hot or cold Air or Steam for heating or cooling Purposes; or engaged in collecting, transporting, treating, purifying and disposing of Sewage through a System, for Profit or not; or in transmitting Messages or furnishing public telegraph or telephone Service, and all Corporations operating as common Carriers, relative to Matters herein next enumerated; that is to say: All Services, Products, Commodities and other Matters touching upon Classes 46 through 52; and Fixing and regulating of the Standard of Rates, Fares, Tolls, Rentals, Charges or Classifications, or any of them, levied, or which may be levied, by any Public Service Corporation or other public Utility for any Service, Product or Commodity touching upon Classes 46 through 52;
53. Culture, Sport, and Tourism;
54. Insignia, Flag, and other Symbols of the State and political subdivisions of the State; and all Protocols and other Rules related thereto, including their relation and precedence vis-á-vis the Insignia, Flag, and other Symbols of the United States;
55. Time zones, and Language;
56. Any Matter of a local or private Nature;—And
57. Any Matter that does not directly come within the Classes of Subjects that are, by clear and express words of this Constitution, actually delegated to the United States, and any Matter not directly coming within the Classes of Subjects actually enumerated in section eight of article II-B of this Constitution; Treaties embracing any Matter touching upon the forgoing Classes of Subjects and all other Matters not directly coming within the Classes of Subjects that are, by clear and express words of this Constitution, actually delegated to the United States; all Matters hitherto undiscovered or otherwise unknown to this Constitution and not repugnant to the Constitution of the State; and all Laws which may be Necessary and Proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers and all other Powers that are neither actually delegated to the United States by this Constitution nor expressly prohibited by it to the States respectively.
The Power of the States, respectively, in relation to all Matters coming within the Classes of Subjects enumerated in this section, shall be absolute and supreme; on all Matters touching upon the Classes of Subjects enumerated in this section, and on all Matters neither directly coming within those Classes of Subjects actually enumerated in article II-B, section 8, of this Constitution nor, by clear and express words of this Constitution, expressly prohibited to the States, the Power of the States respectively is, and shall forever remain, Supreme; and, except to enforce compliance with this Constitution, the United States shall question no Law, Action, or Policy of any State touching upon any Matter coming within the Classes of Subjects enumerated in this section or touching upon any Matter not coming within the actual Enumeration of the Classes of Subjects in article II-B, section 8, of this Constitution and not by clear and express words of the same actually prohibited to the States respectively: Provided, that for greater Certainty it is declared and shall be understood that, except where this Constitution by clear and express words shall actually require otherwise, the judicial Power of the United States shall never be construed as to extend, in any way whatsoever, to any Question, Dispute, Cause, Case, or Controversy, in Law or Equity, or otherwise, in relation to any Law, Action, or Policy of any State touching any Matter coming within the Classes of Subjects enumerated in this section or any Matter not coming within the actual Enumeration of the Classes of Subjects in article II-B, section 8, of this Constitution nor by clear and express words of the same prohibited to the States respectively. The United States shall guarantee to each State perfect and unimpaired Sovereignty as to all Matters of internal Government; and the police Power shall forever belong to the States respectively, and to this end the police Power shall, in perpetuity, be exclusively to and by them reserved and exercised.
The People of each State may include in the Constitution of their State a prohibition against the Government thereof (which they may, at their choosing, designate to extend to include any or all political Subdivisions of their State) as to the exercise any of the Powers, or any combination of them, that are by this Constitution reserved to the States respectively; or qualify the exercise of said Powers, or any of them, on such Terms and under such Conditions as to them shall seem most effective to secure their Safety and Happiness.
Except by actual Amendment to this Constitution, at no time shall the Power of the United States be increased or the Power of the States reduced beyond that which, by this Constitution alone, is expressly and unequivocally provided: And no State shall ever be by the United States deprived of any Competence or Power without the Consent of all of the several States.
For greater Certainty, it is declared and shall be understood:
1. That no interpretation of this Constitution by any Court or other Authority that would effect an increase in the Power, Authority, or Competence of the United States, or would effect a decrease in the Power, Authority, or Competence of any State, or would effect sovereignty on the Government of the United States, shall be anything but null, void, unauthoritative, and of no force of any kind whatsoever throughout the United States and each of them, and in every Place subject to their Jurisdiction;
2. That, except where this Constitution alone by clear and express words shall require otherwise, in and for each State, the Constitution thereof, and all Laws made in strict pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under its Authority, in relation to any Matter coming within the Classes of Subjects enumerated in this section, shall be the supreme Law of that State, any Thing in any Law or Treaty of the United States to the contrary notwithstanding;
3. That, except where this Constitution alone by clear and express words shall permit otherwise, the United States shall make, endorse, or enforce no Law or Treaty that, directly or otherwise, touches upon any Matter coming within the Classes of Subjects enumerated in this section;
4. That, except in exercising exclusive Legislation over the District constituting the Seat of the Government of the United States, any Law or Treaty of the United States that, directly or otherwise, touches upon any Matter coming within the Classes of Subjects enumerated in this section shall be ultra vires the United States, and shall, in every one of the United States and in every Place subject to their Jurisdiction (the said District excepted), be altogether null, void, unauthoritative, and of no force of any kind whatsoever;
5. That the general police Power is, and shall in perpetuity be, reserved to the States respectively, to the exclusion of the United States;
6. That the several State Legislatures shall have Power to enforce this section by Necessary and Proper legislation;—And
7. This section shall be liberally construed in order to effect its general purpose and intent.
In this section:
1. “United States” shall be understood to mean the legislative, executive, judicial, and military departments, or any of them, as the case may be, of the Government of the United States, as well as any Agency or Instrumentality thereof: Provided always, that for the purposes of this section, the meaning of the terms “United States” and “every Place subject to their Jurisdiction” shall not be understood as to include the District constituting the Seat of the Government of the United States.
2. “District constituting the Seat of the Government of the United States” shall be understood to mean that District which is authorized by article II-B, section 8, subsection B, clause 4 of this Constitution.