Canada

The, commonly known as , are a constitutional republican Confederation and Union of seventeen self-governing Commonwealths. Located in the northern part of the North Aegean continent, the United Commonwealths of Canada extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean. At 13971385 km2 in total, Canada is Kobol's third-largest polity by total area and by land area. Canada's common border with the United States forms the world's longest undefended land border.

The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 10th century, British and Valois settlements were established on the region's Atlantic coast. Pursuant to the Federation Act, 1367, on July 1, 1367 three regions joined to form the autonomous Aegean Federation. This began an accretion of provinces and territories to the new self-governing Federation. Eventually, at its peak, this Aegean Federation grew to encompass all of North Aegea north of Mexico. However, by the end of the 15th century, it had disintegrated into a number of smaller political communities, namely the present United Commonwealths of Canada (Declared July 1, 1476), as well as the United States (Declared July 4, 1476) and the Confederate States (Recognized February 4, 1491).

Canada is a constitutional fœderal supranational republic. The Union is officially quadrilingual at the Federal level, with, , , and each being co-official Federal languages. Canada's advanced economy is one of the largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed trade networks. Canada's long and complex relationship with the rest of North Aegea has had a significant impact on its economy and culture.

Canada is a developed polity and one of the wealthiest in the world, with the eighth highest per capita income globally, and the eighth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. The Union ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, and education, and stands among the world's most educated political communities- tied with the United States as first worldwide in the number of adults having tertiary education with 51% of adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree (according to the OECD 1712 survey). The United Commonwealths of Canada actively participate in economic, international and intergovernmental institutions, and other like groupings, including, but not limited to, the G-8 (Group of Eight); the G-10 (economic); the G-20 (G-20 major economies); the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (All-Aegean visa-waiver program, excludes the Confederate States) and the North Aegean Economic Community (single USNA-Canada customs union); as well as the Orientia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. Canada's alliances include the Canadian–USNA North Aegean Defence Community (NORAAD) and the All-Aegean Organization of Aegean States (OAS).

Etymology
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History
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Aboriginal peoples
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European arrival
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Settlements
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Assimilation and organization
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Federation and expansion
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Nationalist era
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Federal War and Independence
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Confederation
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More Perfect Confederation
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Contemporary history
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Geography
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Geology
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Climate
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Canada Land Survey
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Commonwealths
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Government and politics
The United Commonwealths of Canada are a republican confederation that operate under two separate systems: Canada (the Federal head) operates under a variant of the presidential system, whereas the Commonwealths operate under a variant of the parliamentary system; whereby the Governor-General of Canada is appointed by and responsible to the Commonwealth Governors, which are in turn appointed by and responsible to the Commonwealth Legislatures; and both the Governor-General and the Commonwealth Governors are head of state and of government of their respective jurisdictions.

Treaties and the federal division of power
As per the decision in (100 A.F. 1536) and subsequently entrenched in North Aegean common law (and the common law of the three successors of the Aegean Federation), "the stipulations of a treaty duly ratified do not, ipso facto, have the force of law," and that, in Federal States, "where legislative authority is […] divided up between different legislatures in accordance with the classes of subject matter submitted for legislation … [t]he obligations imposed by" a "treaty may have to be performed, if at all, by several legislatures … depend[ing] on the authority of the competent legislature or legislatures."

This means that, while the General government signs and ratifies treaties, actually implementing and enforcing them domestically means enacting the appropriate enabling legislation through whatever legislature has jurisdiction over the class or classes of subject matter embraced in the treaty. For example, for a treaty relating to education (a Commonwealth competence as per the Reserved Powers Clause), the Legislatures of the respective Commonwealths have exclusive jurisdiction within the borders thereof, respectively, to perform the obligations of that treaty; and for a treaty that embraces a solely-General competence as per the Express Powers Clause, such as the postal system, only the Federal Legislature can perform the obligations of that treaty.

However, when a treaty contains a mixture of General and Commonwealth competences, then of the treaty the Federal Legislature performs the obligations thereof for (and only for) those classes of subjects falling under the competence of the Union, and the several Commonwealth Legislatures perform the obligations of the aforementioned treaty for those (and only those) classes of subjects falling under the competence of the Commonwealths.

Subsidiarity and police power
As mandated by the Constitution for Canada, the principle of subsidiarity is to be strictly obeyed by all levels of government throughout the Union. Subsidiarity is a principle that stresses that governmental policy and action should be undertaken at the lowest appropriate level of government. For example, under this principle, when it comes to developing zoning law for an urban setting, it would be inappropriate for any level of government but municipal (e.g., city, town, county) to undertake that project. Likewise, in a decentralized federation or confederation, it would be inappropriate for any government except Commonwealth to enact the criminal code. Only when a specific level of government cannot undertake on its own a specific program or policy should the next-lowest level of government act on the same subject matter.

The principle of Subsidiarity is further modified by the Canadian Constitution's division of legislative competence between the General and Commonwealth governments, with the caveat that "[a]ll Powers not expressly delegated to Canada by this Constitution, nor by express words prohibited by it to the Commonwealths, are reserved exclusively to the Commonwealths respectively, to be exercised by them" (Const. Canada, Article IV, section 1), which means that the Commonwealths respectively retain absolute legislative competence over all subjects that they did not, by the Constitution, delegate to Canada. Also, the Commonwealths did not surrender or transfer any of their Powers to Canada. Rather, they delegated limited authority to Canada to exercise some of their (read: Commonwealth) Powers: The Commonwealths still retain all Powers that of a Right belong to sovereign States, but they have appointed an Agent (e.g., Canada) common to all of them, to exercise some of their Powers in their Name and on their Behalf; and they (severally, not individually) retain in full the absolute right to withdraw or revise their delegation of Power if Canada, as their common Agent, were to act in a Manner destructive or injurious to the intent and purposes of their Confederation and perpetual Canadian Union as it was originally understood by them at the time of Canadian Confederation.

Canada
The Federal Government of Canada, informally known as “[the] Confederation”, and officially the Government of Canada, is the Federal-level government of all fifteen Commonwealths in the Confederation. It is a government of limited authority, only having jurisdiction over those competences expressly delegated to it by the Commonwealths via the Constitution for Canada; and all Powers not expressly delegated to Canada by the Canadian Constitution, nor by express words prohibited by it to the Commonwealths, are reserved to the Commonwealths respectively, to be exclusively by them exercised. Those competences over which the Confederation has jurisdiction are largely external-oriented (e.g., foreign affairs, and regulating trade with foreign States), but a few are internal in nature (such as providing and maintaining post offices and post routes; providing for uniform rules on the subjects of bankruptcy and naturalization (but not immigration, which is a residual competence of the Commonwealths); uniform standards on the subjects of patent and copyright; providing a uniform standard of weights and measures…).

With regard to those competences expressly enumerated as being delegated to Canada, the sovereignty of the Confederation as a whole is supreme, and any Commonwealth law in conflict with a law of Canada relating to an enumerated competence is displaced and is therefore void and unenforceable. However, outside those expressly-enumerated competences, the sovereignty of the several Commonwealths is supreme and absolute: any law of Canada not directly relating to any of its enumerated powers that conflicts with a Commonwealth law is void and unenforceable. This also applies to Treaties: as long as the subject of the Treaty falls under Canada's purview, it is supreme over Commonwealth law, but when a Treaty embraces one or more competences reserved to the Commonwealths, it must be ratified by the Commonwealths before it may be binding against the several Commonwealths and Canada. Furthermore, Treaties are enforced in Canada according to the subjects embraced therein and the Federal division of Powers between Canada and the Commonwealths: Canada enforces and implements Treaties insofar as to its enumerated Powers, and the Commonwealths enforce and implement Treaties insofar as to their reserved Powers

Legislature
All legislative Powers delegated to Canada are vested in the bicameral Federal Legislature of Canada, which consists of a Commonwealth-appointed upper house called the Senate, and a popularly-elected House of Commons. The Congress makes Federal law, and the Consent of both Houses is necessary in all cases whatever to pass a Bill; but before a Bill can become Law, it must be approved by the Governor-General, or if vetoed by the Governor-General, then re-passed in each House of the Congress by a two-thirds supermajority. The Congress also has oversight of the Executive's regulatory Power by inspecting regulations and decrees promulgated by the Executive branch, repealing those it finds problematic or in conflict with constitutional or statutory law (including conflicting with the original intent of the statute or provision of the constitution) and leaving in place those regulations it finds to be beneficial and complementary to Federal statutory law and not repugnant to the Federal Constitution.

Even though both Houses of the Congress are equal partners in the legislative process, each House is vested with certain Powers that the other does not have. For example, the Treaties signed by the Governor-General must be Consented to, or ratified, by the Senate in order to be active and enforceable in Canada; however, trade agreements must have the Consent (ratification) of both the Senate and the House of Commons for it to take effect. The Senate also gives "Advice and Consent" to Gubernatorial-General appointments, such as those for secretaries of Federal executive departments, heads of certain Federal agencies, Federal supreme and inferior Court Judges, and Ambassadors. In addition, all appropriations and salary Bills must originate in the Senate, and the Senate has the sole Power to try Impeachment cases brought forward by the House of Commons (but when the Governor-General is tried, the Chief Justice presides over the Senate). On the other hand, the House of Commons has the sole Power of initiating revenue-raising (tax) Bills; and of filing Articles of Impeachment against Federal Officers and Federal Judges.

Both Houses are deliberately designed in such a way as to check and balance each other: The stable and sober nature of the Senate acts as a check against the often whimsical and passionate nature of the House, and the continuity provided by the Senate balances out the regular spontaneity made manifest in and by the House; and the House was designed to be more in tune with the People's concerns-of-the-day.

Senate
The Senate (officially the "Senate of Canada") is the upper house of the Federal Legislature of Canada, and is not elected by the People but consists of members of each Commonwealth government at ministerial level, and voting is done by Commonwealth, with each Commonwealth having one vote. The Senate represents governments of the seventeen Commonwealths, and through this body, the several Commonwealths act as one part of their check and balance against Federal overreach.

As the membership of the Senate consists of Commonwealth governments, there are seventeen members of that body; however, in addition to its primary representative (a cabinet minister whose portfolio corresponds to the configuration of the Senate that meets) each Commonwealth may send an additional representative to assist its primary representative.

House of Commons
As the Citizens of the Confederation are directly represented at the Federal level in House of Commons, the House is commonly and colloquially referred to as the Democratic Branch of the Congress.

Unlike the Senate, wherein its Seats consist of cabinet ministers of the Commonwealth governments, the whole body of the House of Commons, all three hundred thirty-eight Seats, is directly elected every two Years by the Citizenry of each Commonwealth.

Executive
The executive Power of Canada is vested in the Governor-General of Canada, who, is tasked with “preserving, protecting, and defending the Articles of Confederation and perpetual Canadian Union”, and must “take care that the Laws of Canada are duly and diligently carried out.”

The Governor-General of Canada is nominated by the Governors of the seventeen Commonwealths (in their capacity as sitting as the Federation Council of Canada) and confirmed by the House of Commons, to a Term of no longer than four Years at a Time. The Governor-General nominates, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate of Canada, appoints the various Heads of Department; and together, they form the Government of Canada. The Government of Canada (the Governor-General and the various Heads of Department) are responsible, both individually and collectively, to the Federation Council and House of Commons; and may be removed by the Federation Council upon the passage of a Motion of no Confidence in the House of Commons: However, no confidence motions must be constructive, that is they must also specify the successor to the officer the motion sees to remove.

Judiciary
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Commonwealths
By ratifying the Constitution for Canada, the then-17 Free and Independent Commonwealths entered into a state of perpetual Federal Union with one another; and via the Federal Constitution, they delegated a small range of their sovereign Powers to the Government of Canada, and forever reserving to themselves the entire body of their undelegated, or residual Sovereignty.

Legislature
The legislative Power of each Commonwealth is vested in its Legislature, which consists of two parts (bicameralism), namely an appointed or elected upper-House that is styled either "Council" or "Senate"; and a proportionally-elected lower-House styled "Assembly", "House of Representatives", "House of Commons", "House of Burgesses", or "House of Delegates". Each has a distinct role, but work in conjunction within the legislative process. The Council and the Assembly each forms a check, or negative, on the other. Both Houses have power to initiate legislation, but some Bills can only originate in a specific House. For example, all revenue Bills must originate in the Assembly; but, on the other hand, all appropriations Bills and Bills for setting the salaries of Commonwealth and local officials must originate in the Council. Before the reforms in each Commonwealth between 1542 and 1681, the Council would also function as the highest Court of appeal of the Commonwealth; however, this practice has been abandoned in favor of dedicated supreme and other superior Courts.

Council
The upper House of each Commonwealth Legislature is usually styled either "Council" or "Senate"; and, regardless of name, this body functions both as a general legislative as well as a revisory legislative Body. Council is also always smaller in membership than the Assembly. Councillors (called "Senators" when the body is styled "Senate") are either elected by the People or are appointed by the Governor; and in most Commonwealths, regardless of how they gain office, Councillors serve for a Term of six Years. In most Commonwealths, the Council is composed of one to two Councillors from each County, but in every Commonwealth the representation of each County in Council is equal to that which is afforded to every County; and in most Commonwealths, Councillors may serve for no more than thereof three Terms consecutively (18 Years), and may not be appointed or elected to Council within three Years of the end of their third term. However, in all fifteen Commonwealths, the Terms of Councillors are staggered so that one-third (or one-half) of the Seats are vacated every two Years (or every three Years), in a Manner similar to that used for the Senate of Canada.

Council also serves as a negative to the Assembly (see: checks and balances) as does the Assembly to Council: legislation cannot be enacted into Law without the Consent of both Houses of the Legislature. In addition, all appropriation Bills and all Bills for fixing the salaries of Commonwealth and local employees must originate in Council; but the Assembly may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. The Consent of both the Council and the Assembly is required to enact legislation, which becomes Law upon the Approval of the Governor; however, if the Governor vetoes a Bill, it is sent back to the House from whence it originated, along with the Governor's objections. The Legislature can enact vetoed Bills into Law, overruling the Governor's objections, with the approval of two-thirds of both Houses, effectively presenting a check on the authority of the Governor.

The Council also possesses a limited executive role: The Governor may have the constitutional Authority to nominate the principle Officers in each of the various executive Departments, as well as the Judges of the supreme and inferior Courts; but to actually install them into office (e.g., appoint them) requires the Consent of Council by a margin of no less than two-thirds of the total Members thereof. By Convention, the Governor generally nominates Persons based on the Advice of Council, and then officially submits the nomination to Council for its Consent —thus fulfilling the constitutional duty of Council to give "Advice and Consent" to those Gubernatorial actions prescribed by the Commonwealth Constitution or general Law.

In addition, Council has the sole power to try Impeachment cases of Commonwealth Officials; and when the Governor is tried, the Chief Justice of the Commonwealth presides over Council.

Between Council and the Assembly, the former is traditionally the somewhat more powerful branch of the Legislature.

Assembly
The lower House of each Commonwealth Legislature is usually named "Assembly" or "House of Representatives"; however, other names used for this House include "House of Delegates", "House of Burgesses", and "House of Commons". Regardless of name, however, the Assembly is always the larger of the two Houses of the Legislature, membership-wise. Members of the lower house are elected by the Citizens of the Commonwealth, and serve for a Term of two Years; but may not serve for more than three Terms consecutively, or no more than six Years at a time.

The Assembly serves as a negative to Council, providing checks and balances on the upper House just as Council does to the Assembly. Furthermore, all Bills for raising Revenue must originate in the Assembly, but Council may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

The Assembly has the sole power of filing Articles of Impeachment against Commonwealth Officials, akin to filing an indictment through a Grand Jury, whereas Council has the sole power to prosecute all Impeachments of Commonwealth Officials.

Executive
The executive Power of each Commonwealth is vested in a Governor, who, together with his Deputy (either a dedicated Lieutenant-Governor or the president of the upper house of the Commonwealth Legislature) and the principle Officers in each of the various executive Departments, carries on the executive Affairs of the Commonwealth and enforces Commonwealth and Federal Laws.

Governor
The first and foremost functions of the Governor are to protect the liberties of the people of his Commonwealth, and to see to it that all lawful statutes, regulations, and ordinances of the Commonwealth not repugnant to the Commonwealth Constitution are "duly and diligently executed"; however, the Governor is duty-bound to refuse the execution of all statutes, regulations, and ordinances that violate either the Commonwealth or Federal constitutions.

In all fifteen Commonwealths, the Governor is appointed by and responsible to the Legislature. In many Commonwealths, to appoint the Governor the Legislature must vote by special majority, usually by a three-fifths majority or higher. In addition, in some Commonwealths the Governor is appointed by both Houses of the Legislature, whereas in others he is appointed by only one of the two Houses.

Executive Council


The Governor, Lieutenant-Governor (where applicable), and the principle Officers in each of the various executive Departments collectively compose the Executive Council (colloquially referred to as the "Cabinet" or the "Governor's Cabinet"). Presided over by the Governor, the Executive Council is responsible for duly and diligently carrying out the Laws of the Commonwealth and all Laws of Canada.

Judiciary
The Courts at the Commonwealth-level interpret the Laws of that Commonwealth, and ensure that they are in compliance with the Commonwealth and Federal constitutions —applying and upholding those that are in conformity with the Commonwealth and Federal constitutions; and denying and nullifying those laws, regulations, and ordinances that are in conflict with the Commonwealth or Federal constitutions. As with the Federal Court, all Commonwealth Courts possess the power of Judicial review; and just as the Federal Court has power to rescind Federal laws found by it to be in conflict with the Federal Constitution, all Commonwealth Courts have like power over the constitutionality over Commonwealth laws.

Supreme Court


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Superior Court


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Inferior courts


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Law
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Foreign relations and military
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International organizations
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Economy
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Science and technology
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Health
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Education
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Demographics
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Age
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Ethnicity
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Language
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Religion
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Culture
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Visual arts
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Theater
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